Content-Based Language Training - Journals

1.  THE IMPACT OF CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION ON STUDENTS" ACHIEVEMENT IN ESP COURSES & THEIR LANGUAGE LEARNING ORIENTATION

(Amiri, M. & Fatemi, A.H. (2014). The Impact of Content Based Instruction on Students' Achievement in ESP Courses & Their Language Learning Orientation. Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 4, No. 10.)

Link:

http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol04/10/24.pdf

2.  CONTENT-BASED INTERNET-ASSISTED ESP TEACHING TO UKRAINIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS MAJORING IN PSYCHOLOGY 

(Tarnopolsky, O. (2009). Content-Based Internet-Assisted ESP Teaching to Ukrainian University Students Majoring in Psychology. Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law. The Reading Matrix, Vol 9, No. 2.)

Link:

http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/sept_2009/tarnopolsky.pdf


3.  ADAPTING A CONTENT-BASED APPROACH IN ESP TEACHING : AN ACTION RESEARCH ON THE MASTER STUDENTS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.

(Benabdallah, A. (2012). Adapting a Content-Based Approach in ESP Teaching: an Action Research on the Master Students of Developmental Psychology. Abu Baker Balkaid University of Tlemcen. English for Specific Purposes World, Issue 35, Vol. 12.)

Link:
http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_35/Awicha.pdf

4.  THE VALUE OF CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE TRAINING FOR THE AVIATION INDUSTRY.

(Mathews, E. The Value of Content-based Language Training for the Aviation Industry.)

Link:
http://www.icao.int/Meetings/AMC/MA/Second%20ICAO%20Aviation%20Language%20Symposium%20(IALS-2)/17.Matthews.pdf

5.  CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH FOR ACCOUNTING AT VIETNAMESE COLLEGE OF FINANCE AND CUSTOMS
 

(Nguyen, Thi Chau Ngan. (2011). Content-based Instruction in the Teaching of English for Accounting at Vietnamese College of Finance and Customs. College of Finance & Customs, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietname. English Language Teaching, Vol. 4, No. 3.)

Link:
http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/article/view/11879/8339


Published by Nur Izzati bt Abdul Hadi

CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE TRAINING

• Content-Based Language Training (CBLT) is a significant approach in language education (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989). In ESP it is designed to provide the learners instruction in content and language.
•  Historically, the word content has changed its meaning in language teaching. Content used to refer to the methods of grammar-translation, audio-lingual methodology and vocabulary or sound patterns in dialog form. Recently, content is interpreted as the use of subject matter as a vehicle for second or foreign language teaching/learning.

WHAT IS CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE TRAINING?

1. Content-based language training (CBLT) in ESP is different from traditional English classes because language comes second to the content. The teachers/trainers run the course on their students' current affairs or problems. 
2. It is an ESP training/learning process in which the focus of instruction is shifted from from pure language instruction to the integration of mastering both language for professional communication and the content matter of professional disciplines (Snow, Met, & Genesee, 1989; Spanos, 1990).
3. Leaver and Stryker (1989) claim that CBLT is an instructional approach in which “language proficiency is achieved by shifting the focus of the course from the learning of language per se to the learning of subject matter",
4. Moreover, CBLT tries to develop both students' language and their content knowledge through providing them with authentic, meaningful academic contexts. It also claims that the acquisition of language is most effective when the conditions of acquisition are analogous to those of first language acquisition (Krashen 1985; Savignon 1983; Snow 1993; Wesche 1993). 

AIM OF CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE TRAINING

• The aim of CBLT is to help learners in developing general language skills through interesting and appropriate contents.
• Learners will be evaluated based on all language skills (listening,writing,reading and speaking).
• Considering that language cannot be used in a vacuum, it must be used to communicate about something.

APPROACHES

• CBLT is based on two approaches: 

1. People learn English more successfully when they use it as a means of acquiring information, rather than as end itself.
2. CBLT reflect learners' needs for learning English better. This approach follows the fact that many content based programs help to prepare ESP learners both for academic studies and mainstreaming. Therefore, the needs to be able to access both the content and processes of academic learning and teaching quickly are the main priority.

CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE TRAINING MODELS

Sheltered Instruction

1. Sheltered instruction is a teaching style based on the concept of providing meaningful instruction in the content area. It is an approach to teaching English language learners which combined both language and content instruction. 
2. Through this model, the instruction is implemented by a content expert who is native speaker of the target language.
3. Brinton, Snow and Wesche defined it as “content courses taught in the second language to a segregated group of learners by a content area expert, such as a university professor who is a native speaker of the target language”.
4. Two instructors can work together to give instruction in a specific subject. For an example, a medical lecturer will be giving a short lecture and an English language instructor can check whether have understood the important medical terms by reviewing with them later.

Adjunct Instruction 

1. Adjunct classes emphasis on acquiring specific target vocabulary; they may also feature study skills sessions to familiarize the students with listening, note taking and skimming and scanning texts. 
2.  Applying this model, students take part in two linked courses, a content course and a language course both of which include the same content in common and complement each other regarding jointly coordinated homework (Richard and Rodgers, 2001).
3. Adjunct language instruction is required if and when students are quite ready both in what concerns the language and in what concerns the content to be taught their professional academic courses in English only (total English immersion).

Theme Based Instruction

1. Theme based instruction is specially designed for ESP classes only. 
2. It is structured around  a set of professional topics (themes) that follow each other in a logical consecutive order which corresponds to the order of studying those themes in an academic course on some majoring discipline or in courses on several such disciplines.
3. In theme based instruction special attention is given to writing,listening,reading and speaking for professional purposes in teaching or learning purposes.
4. In a theme based instruction, the instructors and students supposed to share their attention in a more or less balanced manner between the language and content matter  (the language and content can either be equally focused upon or the focus on content may only slightly dominate over the focus on language). 
   

WHAT DOES A CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE TRAINING LOOK LIKE?

This is one possible way to create CBLT:

Example: Psychology students who are interested to learn about psychological counselling. They are allowed to do some research on the subject using suitable sources.

Preparation

1. Choose a subject of interest to learners (psychological counselling).
2. Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. These could be websites, reference books, audio or video of lecturers or even real people.

During the lesson

1. Divide the students into small groups and assign each group a small research task and a source of information to use to help them fulfill the task.
2. Then once they have done their research  they can form new groups with students that used other information sources. They can share and compare their information.

End of lesson

1. There should be some product as the end result of the sharing of information which could take the form of oral presentation or a group report. 

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE TRAINING

Peachey’s (2003) overview of content based language training:

Advantages

1. CBLT can make language learning becomes more interesting and motivating. Students can use the language (English) to fulfill a real purpose, which can make the students more independent and confident.
2. Offer a wide educational knowledge to students in the form of the different topics instructed.
3. Help students to develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and extracting key information from texts.
4. Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring those information can help students to establish good thinking skills that can then be transferred to other subjects.
5. Develop collaborative skills, especially in a group work, which can have great social values.

Disadvantages

1. Some students may confuse and feel that they are not improving their English skills because the focus of CBLT is not explicitly on language learning.
2. Difficulties with a topic may lead to large amounts of mother tongue language being used.
3. Difficulties in finding resources for low level students to understand.
4. Students may just copy from source texts without attempting any evaluation.

References:

British Council. Content-based instruction.

Retrieved on Tuesday, 22nd September 2015 from 

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/content-based-instruction 

Davies, Stephen (February 2003). Content-Based Instruction in EFL Contexts. The Internet TESLJournal, Vol. IX, No. 2. Miyazaki International College.

Retrieved on Monday, 21st September 2015 from 
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Davies-CBI.html

i. http://www.slideshare.net/amansaeede/17-content-based-instruction-cbi

ii. http://www.slideshare.net/19chepe/content-based-instruction-16143752?related=1


Published by Nur Izzati bt Abdul Hadi

Task-based Approach

Contemporary Approaches to Language Training

iii) Task-based approach

What is task?

Many different definitions of ‘task’ have been proposed:                                            

•   Task is a piece of work that need to be done, especially one that is difficult or that must be done regularly. (Longman English Dictionary)

•   A task is a range of learning activities from the simple and brief exercise to more complex and lengthy activities, such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision-making. (Breen, 1987:23)

•  An activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought at which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process was regarded as a task. (Prabhu, 1987:24)

•  A task is any activity that learners engage in to process of learning a language. (Williams and Burden, 1997:168)

 Five characteristics of task

               i.          Meaning is primary

             ii.          Learners are not given other people’s meaning to regurgitate

           iii.          There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities

           iv.          Task completion have some priority

             v.          The assessment of the task is in terms of outcomes.

Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based Language Teaching. The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. University of Hong Kong. Page:3. 

http://www.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/best%20of%20bilash/task-based%20language%20teaching.pdf

Task-based Language Approach (TBLL/TBLT or TBI)

Task-based Language Learning (TBLL) which also known as Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) or Task-Based Instruction (TBI) is an approach which offers students opportunities to actively engage in communication in order to achieve a goal or complete a task. Task-based language learning seeks to develop students’ interlanguage through providing a task and then using language to solve it. To summarize, it focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students/learners to do meaningful tasks using the target language. The assessment is primarily based on the task outcome or the completion of any tasks rather than on an accuracy of language forms in order to improve students/learners’ performances for developing target language fluency and confidence.

It was first developed by N. Prabhu in Bangalore, India. He believed that students may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the task, rather on the language they are using. (Prabhu, 1987; as cited in Littlewood, 2004)

The Rationale of Task-based Learning

i) Theory of Language        

Several assumptions about the nature of language can be said to underlie current approaches to task-based learning, which are;

·         Language is primarily a means of making meaning

·         Multiple models of language inform task-based learning

·         Lexical units are central in language use and language learning

·         “Coversation” is the central focus of language and the keystone of the language acquisition

ii) Theory of Learning

Task-based learning shares the general assumptions about the nature of language learning underlying Communicative Language Teaching.

·         Tasks provide both the input and the output processing necessary for language acquisition

·         Task activity and achievement are motivational

·         Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical puposes

Why Using Task-Based Approach?

• Provides the learner with context – The largest benefit of  a task-based approach is that it places the content to be learned into the actual performance context.  
• A natural context is developed from the learners' experiences with the language that is personalised and relevant to them.
•  The learners will have a much more varied exposure to language.
• It is a strong communicative approach where learners spend a lot of time communicating with each other.

A Task-based Approach Procedure

Task -based learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it. The lesson follows certain stages.

1. Pre-task:  The teacher introduces the topic and gives the students clear instructions on what they will have to do at the task stage and might help the students to recall some language that may be useful for the task. The pre-task stage can also often include playing a recording of people doing the task. This gives the students a clear model of what will be expected of them. The students can take notes and spend time preparing for the task.
2. Task:  The students complete a task in pairs or groups using the language resources that they have as the teacher monitors and offers encouragement.
3. Planning:  Students prepare a short oral or written report to tell the class what happened during their task. They then practise what they are going to say in their groups. Meanwhile the teacher is available for the students to ask for advice to clear up any language questions they may have.
4. Report:  Students then report back to the class orally or read the written report. The teacher chooses the order of when students will present their reports and may give the students some quick feedback on the content. At this stage the teacher may also play a recording of others doing the same task for the students to compare.
5. Analysis: The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the recording for the students to analyse. They may ask students to notice interesting features within this text. The teacher can also highlight the language that the students used during the report phase for analysis.
6. Practice: Finally, the teacher selects language areas to practise based upon the needs of the students and what emerged from the task and report phases. The students then do practice activities to increase their confidence and make a note of useful language.

Example of Task-based Approachs’ Activities

      

1.      Listing and/or brainstorming

Examples:

                  i.            In pairs, agree on a list of four or five people who were famous in the 20th century

                 and give at least one reason for including each person

                ii.            On your own, make a list of all the things he/she did. Then check with your partner.   Were there any things you forgot?

2.      Ordering and sorting

Examples:

              iii.            In pairs, look at your list of famous people. Which people are most likely to remain popular and become 20th century icons? Rank them from most popular to least popular, and be prepared to justify your order to another pair.

                                                                                                         

3.      Matching

Example:

              iv.            Read the texts – each texts is about a famous person but the person is not named - and look at the photos. Match each text to a photo. Then talk to your partner, and say how you were able to match them. Prepare to tell the class how you did it.

                                       

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/six-types-task-tbl

References

British Council, ESOL Nexus. Task based Approach.

            Retrieved on Wednesday, 23^rd September 2015 from

            http://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/task-based-approach

Esfandiar, M., Knight, P., Molinari, J., & Zacharias, S. (2012). Task-based Learning Applied. “Jane Willis‘ A Framework for Task-based Learning in 1996 (J. Willis 1996)”. University of Nottingham.

Retrieved on Monday, 21^st September 2015 from https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/education/documents/research/jubileepress/occasionalpapers/task-based-learning-applied-web-vers---1-dec-2012-(lp).pdf

i. http://www.slideshare.net/hulyagulek1993/task-based-language-teaching-tblt

ii. http://www.slideshare.net/Sa345mar/task-based-learning-14703475

iii. http://www.slideshare.net/tortadericota/tbl-1

iv.  : https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/a-task-based-approach

v.  https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/six-types-task-tbl

Published by :
Nurnajihah binti Shafie & Wan Hazrena Fakeeza binti Wan Zakaria

SKILL-BASED TRAINING

SKILL-BASED TRAINING

WHAT IS SKILL-BASED TRAINING?

Ø  A skill-based training is a type of education that comprises teaching and learning specific skills.

Ø  Attempts to concentrate on developing and applying specific skills and behaviors.

Ø  Learners must spend the majority of their training time engaged in learning, developing, and practicing skills in a variety of hands-on activities and real life scenarios.

Ø  Skill based training will fall short if there is insufficient time dedicated for the application of the skills.

Ø   The skills training is to not only enable the learner to acquire proficiency in the specific skill/skills, but have confidence to competently apply it at workplace/job.

Ø  The skill-based training is arbitrary since it is not limited to certain scope only. It is widespread all across genres be it the training of speaking skill for high school students, writing skill for the journalism graduates, listening skill for telephone operators,reading skills for the newscasters, or learning social skills for fresh graduates.

Ø  The skills involved for the training/teaching have their own unique criteria and requirements to be fulfilled in its best condition.

Ø  The success of the skill-based training can be proven when the learners are able to acquire the skills learned and apply it in their job or tasks.

FUNDAMENTAL STEPS/GUIDELINES IN CONDUCTING A SKILL-BASED TRAINING

STEPS	EXPLANATION
1)      Identify the competencies	-          Identify the learners strengths and weaknesses -          Identify the learners needs -          Develop/revise individual task requirement
2)      Sequence skills and tasks	-          Logical categorization of skills to be trained -          Incorporate skills training and hand on task -          Integrate new training technologies
3)      Implement training strategy	-          Ensure learning transfer and retention -          Focus on problem solving/troubleshooting -          Reinforce skills by integrating into other events later in course
4)      Evaluate and revise	-          Conduct supervisor/key leader survey -          Revise, as required

Ø  In any field of jobs or studies language is always on its top position to serve several purposes. Thus, the skills in using language is fundamental to enable people to speak their minds, write good business report etc. The four language skills which are speaking, writing, reading, and listening should be acquired in order to become a competent worker or student.

LANGUAGE SKILLS ALL ACROSS GENRES OF SKILL-BASED TRAINING

No.	Skills	Requirements
1.	Listening	-          Recognize sounds, words, and phrases -          Get the general idea, remember salient points and predict what’s coming next -          Understand the discourse type of genre you are listening to -          Get used to listening to different types of people for different lengths of time -          Screen out what you are not interested in and focus on what you are interested in -          Deal with accents and dialects -          Interpret a message against a background of expectations and respond accordingly
2.	Speaking	-          Use different parts of the mouth and body from those needed in your own language -          Make individual sounds and combine them -          Produce correct stress on individual words and on longer stretches depending on the meaning you want to convey -          Use intonation (including tones across discourse) -          Work with appropriate rhythm and pace -          Express your own meaning and your own personality by choosing from a range of physical and verbal expressions -          Interact with people appropriately, repairing breakdown of messages, taking turns and speaking alone for short and long periods -          Describe agree, beg, plead, insult etc. all as naturally as possible (Naturalness also involves clothing, posture, and body orientation, gesture, body contact, facial expression and gaze.
3.	Reading	-          Recognize different formats such as headlines or faxes and different styles and genres -          Know letters, words, and phrases -          Understand implication and style -          Skim, scan, predict, guess, and remember -          Relate what you have read to our own experience, mentally agree or disagree, criticize or commend, physically turn the pages from right to left, and read the lines from left to right -          Survey books, speed read -          Read aloud -          Pore over what every word means or read for pleasure and the general idea
4.	Writing	-          Form individual letters, both upper and lower case, space them from left to right in relationship to a line and join them up -          Think of something to write -          Make sentences with punctuation -          Indent and know what a paragraph is -          Write different kinds of texts such as letters, postcards, and summaries, with appropriate choice of layout, vocabulary, and logical structure -          Read and reread our own work, crossing out, rewriting and reorganizing as well as correcting grammar, spelling, and punctuation -          Write with accuracy, fluency, and confidence

SKILL-BASED TRAINING PRINCIPLES

1)      Student Centered

-          Learn by doing/Outcomes based training

-          Facilitate learning among students

2)      Active Learning

-          Learner responsible for learning

-          Problem solving/troubleshooting

3)      Train on Most Difficult Piece of Equipment First

-          Sequenced skills acquirement

-          Stage by stage teaching/training

4)      Focus on Skills

-          Identify & reinforce specific knowledge & skills

-          All tasks are not performed on all equipment

5)      Shared Learning/Experiences

-          Learn based on experiences of doing things before

-          Share experiences be it among students or between students and their instructors

6)      Build Confidence

-          Challenge with complex situations

-          Allow the students to act confidently

THE EXAMPLE OF SKILL-BASED TRAINING COURSE

Source: http://www.the-centre.co.uk/courses/detail/listening_skills

Course summary

Ø  This one-day workshop focuses on a key but often ignored communication skill: focused listening. If you consider the four basic communication skills - listening, speaking, reading and writing, it is interesting to note that listening is the first learned, the most used and the least taught whereas writing is the last learned, least used and the most taught. With that in mind, reflect on your years in education - from primary school through university. Was there ever a dedicated course offered to you in listening?

Course outline

Ø  By 'focused listening' we are referring to moving away from our hectic, 'get it done NOW' lives and moving towards more meaningful interactions with other human beings - something of a haven from our fast-paced world. More importantly, the skills taught will help create deeper, more rewarding relationships with your staff, colleagues, customers, clients and other stakeholders.

Ø  Focused listening is a way of listening that involves a clear intention and ability to concentrate on the speaker's words in order to discern what is being communicated on multiple levels. By focused listening you will hear what is, and is not being said and can pick up on subtleties that are often missed with more superficial, hurried listening. By taking the time to truly listen to what the speaker has to say, the other person is likely to feel respected and heard. Real and focused listening leads to greater trust on the part of listener and the potential for a stronger overall relationship.

Ø  This one-day course covers: 

• why listening is so important
• best and worst listeners exercise
• the concept of ‘slow listening'
• principles of communication
• five types of listening
• giving and getting feedback
• asking questions
• too much noise level and overcoming it
• listening to learn
• listening to decide
• listening to connect
• a year of free support

Ø  The course is highly interactive with useful exercises, group discussion and role play.

Who is this course for?

Ø  This course is for anyone who wants to improve their listening skills, from administrators and assistants through to line managers and senior managers. You may feel that you have difficulty with your focused listening, or simply that you wish to strengthen your work relationships through improved listening skills. The Centre works with people from all sectors including the public sector, voluntary sector, corporate sector and private sector.

What will this course help me do: learning outcomes?

Ø  By the end of this course you will be able to understand the listening process in the context of facilitating effective interactions with others by identifying your barriers to listening and practicing skills and attitudes which facilitate effective listening.

Ø  You will have an increased awareness of how state-of-mind impacts the quality of listening. You will be able to identify and confirm what is going on in the other person's world. This includes identifying their core issues, needs and concerns.

Ø  You will have an understanding of how to discern the deeper meaning behind the other person's communication. This includes listening beyond the words for both spoken and unspoken messages.

Ø  You will have an enhanced ability to summarise the conversation and confirm next steps.